Results from the first year of testing will only be broken down to the state level.  This will reveal the states who have not effectively implemented the national standards.  District leaders from these states will need extensive training on what the national standards are and how they should be taught at each level.  They will need to provide extensive training to their teachers throughout the next few years.  The department of education will work with these states to establish yearly goals so that they will perform as well as the rest of the country within three years.  Every few months the department of education will follow up with the state board of education to ensure the states have the resources necessary to achieve success.

            Results from the second and third years will be broken down to the district and subpopulation level.  Any district in which most students are not able to master the educational standards will need remediation of teachers and district leaders.  Just like the department of education did for the state, the state leaders will meet with the districts to establish goals that will lead them toward success and then help them meet these goals. 

            By the time we develop a national assessment system, government officials on the state and federal levels will have worked out most funding issues.  Most states will save millions of dollars in developing and reporting on state developed tests, much of which can now be spent helping districts adjust to and meet the national standards.  Strict oversight is necessary to ensure that money designated for education is spent on education.  Like most government run programs education has become full of pork.  In the United States, 52% of education dollars reach the classroom, and only about 43% of education staff members are classroom teachers.  In other industrialized nations, about 75% of education resources are spent directly on instruction and classroom teachers represent from 60%-80% of all staff members (Darling, 2005).  If our students are going to be competitive in a global market, there must be firm requirements set on education funding to ensure the dollars designated for our children actually reach them.  The fluff and wasteful spending must be cut from national, state and local education budgets.  Before any expenditure is approved it must pass the litmus test of, “Will this allow students to be more successful?”

            A major consideration in the budget discussions will be providing teachers with highly effective and consistent professional development.  Researchers agree that teacher learning communities are an effective method of professional development.  Teachers should be required to have at least one class period a day, in addition to their conference period, to meet with their same course colleges.  Not only is this difficult on a school’s master schedule, because all biology teachers must have the same period for professional development, but it is also very expensive.  For every five teachers, who currently teach six classes, another teacher will need to be hired so each teacher only teaches five classes and has a period for professional development.  Elementary schedules will be even more complicated as the entire first grade will need to be working in other areas so their teachers can work together.  Just providing this time is not going to be effective because most teachers have never experienced or heard of learning communities.  They will need to be trained on expected outcomes of professional development and how to use the time most effectively.  The teachers’ learning groups will need to produce some documentation or log of their experience so that administrators can assess how things are going and identify what specific areas or groups need additional training.  

As part of the national transition to teacher learning communities, teachers need access to professional journals.  Educational research can not have any impact on education if it can not be accessed by educators.  Teachers should be able access to this research through the libraries of state universities.  Most teachers will not have any idea of how or what to look for in these articles at first, but if each learning group reads and discusses one article a semester, teachers will begin to become acquainted with the style of research articles and hopefully come to appreciate the vast amount of information that is available through them.  In order to completely bridge the research-to-practice gap, districts should provide bonuses for teachers who write articles and are published in professional journals.

Once the system is in place, the department of education and state boards of education can identify areas of low student performance.  As it stands, these children have the most inexperienced and under qualified teachers in the United States.  It is obvious that this is a self perpetuating cycle.  These schools are where we need to have the most effective teachers.  In order to encourage teachers to accept positions in these schools, a significant financial incentive must be offered.  We need to create a climate where being offered a position working with the students who struggle the most is considered an honor.

            While teachers establish useable education standards, governmental leaders can create a modern funding system for education.  People who live in America expect to feel safe.  They have no problems with the government spending billions of dollars on developing the strongest military in the world.  Education is another key to the safety and security of our country.  Through education, our children will develop the skills they need to lead our country into the future.  If our country is going to thrive, education must be our top priority and as such, it should be the most expensive thing in the federal budget.  Currently, the United States is the only developed country where the amount of money spent per student can vary by as much as $11,000 (Biddle, 2002).  To add insult to injury, the most impoverished students typically get the least money for education and the most economically advantaged students who get the most money.  There are many different systems in place around the world to eliminate the discrepancy in funding and ensure the students who need the most actually receive the most funding.  It will take time for policy makers to sort through these and create a system that will work in the United States.  There will also be much input from local and state governments who will not want to lose control over the tax dollars.  Although finding a way to effectively fund education will be the most difficult part of creating a public education system for our country, it is a task that must be done well.

The quality of teachers in public schools across the United States must improve.  For us to provide our students with the most capable teachers, we will have to pay these people more than they could make outside the educational system.  In the state of Texas, a teacher with a graduate degree earns $1000 more per year than a teacher with the same experience who does not have a graduate degree.  The $1000 increase is divided among twelve pay periods.  All in all, it takes over 15 years for a teacher to pay for the graduate degree with their $1000 raise.  There must be a federal standard of compensation for teachers with advanced degrees.  Every teacher with an advanced degree should receive a significant stipend from the federal government in addition to what states or school districts provide.  Instead of constantly reports of teacher shortages, teaching should be a highly competitive field.  This would ensure all students are taught by only the most capable teachers.

            The time has come where the nation must face the fact that the educational system in the United States no longer works.  The house is structurally unsound and although it has a lot of history and good memories, it must be torn down so that we can build a place that can meet the needs of our children.  Our education system was one of the first public education systems in the world.  As with any pioneering venture, we made mistakes and we need to learn from those mistakes.  Countries that established their educational systems after we did studied our system and learned from it.  As a result, many of those countries designed excellent and efficient systems to educate their children.  Their consistently higher test scores make this fact apparent.  Now we can benefit from the extensive research on these systems and design the greatest educational system in the world.

            Change is rarely easy.  Big changes are never easy.  Completely restructuring the education system will be the most difficult task facing our country in the 21^st century.  So much time and energy has been spent covering over the problems and minimizing the significance of the short comings that most people have no idea of the true state of education in this country.  The general public must be made aware of the true state of education and all the areas in which our system does not measure up to those of other countries.  This information could create a huge backlash from parents, teachers, state boards and lobbyists.  Parents will demand vouchers to send their children to private schools and everyone else will point fingers and call each other names.  As long as educational leaders stand firm through the initial firestorm, they will be able to move forward and create the system of education we need to deal with the challenges our children will face in a global society.

            The system will need a foundation of three inter-related support networks.  The first is a strong system of national standards to ensure all children have the chance to learn everything they need to know. Secondly, we must create a system for funding public education that addresses the needs of all students.  The third, and possibly most important, is a system to ensure that students are taught by the best trained and most effective teachers in the world.  Due to the scope of changes that must be made to establish a new system for education, each part will need to be implemented in stages to allow teachers and students to understand the new system.

            Biddle and Berlinger (2002) report that few students in the United States attend public schools where funding is set at $15,000 or more per student, while some American schools make do with less than $4000 per student.  Disparities such as these are not tolerated in other developed countries where public schools are funded equally from national taxes.  The Netherlands uses a national funding system with allocates money to all schools based on the number of enrolled students, but for every guilder allocated to a middle-class Dutch child, 1.25 guilders are allocated for a lower-class child and 1.9 guilders for a minority child (Biddle). As illustrated in Appendix A, funding in the United States is the opposite, because lower-class and minority children typically receive less than middle-class white children.  This funding gap created an achievement gap between states.  Biddle and Berlinger discovered that students from well funded schools, when compared to students from other countries on the TIMSS report, performed as well as their peers in Hong Kong and Japan.  Students from underfunded schools, using the same report, performed at the same levels as students in Jordan and Iran.  Better funded schools attract teachers with higher levels of education, more experience, and higher scores on competency tests.  These teachers in turn generate better achievement scores among students (Biddle). 

In the 2006 report by Liu, he points out that the discrepancy between educational funding across states is not a new or unknown issue in Congress.  Congress considered a series of proposals to narrow these funding gaps during Reconstruction.  After each World War, Congress debated proposals on educational funding.  In 1972, President Nixon’s Commission on School Finance recommended that the federal government equalize resources among the States for elementary and secondary education.  In 1979, a committee of the National Academy of Education emphasized that reducing inequities in educational opportunity, should be a key priority for the federal government. Even though the issue of educational funding has been discussed many times in Congress little has ever been done to close this funding gap. 

Currently, federal spending on public elementary and secondary schools comprises 7.9% of total education revenue in 2001-02 (Liu, 2006). Teacher shortages are a common problem in the United States but rare in counties where teacher salaries are competitive with those in other professional occupations (Darling, 2005).  The United States has the resources to fund improve the quality of teaching in our schools.  However, some of the 92.1% of the federal education revenue will need to be redirected toward this end if America is to achieve its education goals.  The federal government cannot buy much equality when they only provide eight cents of every education dollar.

            Several studies reveal huge gaps between educational research and the actual practice of education (Corcoran, Fuhrman, & Belcher, 2001; Heibert, Gallimore, & Stigler, 2002; Kang, 2007; Ruthven, 2005).  In education, there is no mechanism for the efficient implementation of research.  For example, research done in the 1970’s showed that following a specific set of standards improved student achievement.  In the 1990’s, state governments actually adopted standards.

            Burkhardt and Schoenfeld (2003) identified five barriers in education that prevent research from impacting classroom practices.  First, no individual or group is responsible for applying research to the classroom.  Second, there are not enough resources allocated to adequately test research in the classroom.  Third, educational researchers do not have built in incentives within the culture of research to encourage collaboration – the higher the number of people that work on a project, the less credit any individual receives for the results.  Fourth, education is not a research-based industry.  Evaluations of curriculum effectiveness almost never involve performance data.  Fifth, there is no commercial data for implementing change (Burkhardt & Schoenfeld).

            The problem as stated by Hargreaves is, “educational researchers write mainly for one another in their countless academic journals, which are not to be found in a school staffroom.” (as cited in Joram, 2007). Teachers do not have access to professional journals and do not pursue access because they simply do not have the time required to weed through to the technical jargon of the vast amounts of reports on any given topic to find something that might apply to their classroom.  A study conducted by Landrum, Cook, Tankersley, and Fitzgerald examined practicing teachers’ assessments of the trustworthiness, usability, and accessibility of information from four sources: colleagues, workshops, college courses, and professional journals.  Teachers rated professional journals as the least trustworthy, and usable sources of information and only slightly more accessible than college courses.  Teaching will not truly be considered a profession until these hurdles are overcome and teachers become both effective producers and critical consumers of educational research.  As Elmore (2005) points out, teachers can not become more effective by applying knowledge and skill they already have.

Most teachers want to be better teachers, but they have limited resources to rely on in order to actually fulfill this desire. Educational research is supposed to help teachers improve their practice.  Yet it will never achieve this end if it is not made available to teachers in a context they can understand and easily apply.  Most educational research is not readily useful to most teachers because it is the product of isolated studies rather than groups of studies designed to address the complexities of actual classrooms.  Cocoran, Fuhrman, and Belcher (2001) found that even when districts encourage the use of research in decision making, school staff members pay lip service to the merits of research but value the actual experience of teachers in the classroom more.  Teachers state that research is difficult to access and even harder to interpret.  Teachers felt they were ill prepared to sort out significant discoveries from the copious data (Cocoran, et. al., 2001).  Consequently, the knowledge that guides most classroom teachers comes from years of trial and error within the education system.  As much as they might benefit from the knowledge of their colleagues, most teachers cannot access the experiences of others and must create their own pool of knowledge from scratch.  Heibert, Gallimore, and Stigler (2002) believe teachers must have a means of storing knowledge in a form that it can be accessed and used by others if it is to take on a life of its own.  This system would allow teachers to treat ideas for teaching as objects that can be shared and examined publicly.  

Ruthven (2005) argues that teacher research provides a bottom-up means of developing prototypes of good practice, and of doing so in a way which promotes deeper thinking by participating teachers, stronger commitment from them, and more far-reaching changes.  Combining the roles of teacher and researcher eliminates the problems with accessibility and contextualization of research for the teacher.  Kang (2007) confirms the productive nature of action research as professional development.  The teachers’ experiences with action research connect their knowledge with classroom actions which transforms the teaching practices they use with students (Kang).  Although most teachers claim their informal research is motivated by “professional development,” it can have the dual purpose of generating a “public knowledge base” if teachers were given a common forum to post and discuss their findings.

            Many nations focus their educational reforms on improving teacher education.  These nations realize that the economic and political survival of their country depends on their ability to produce teachers who effectively teach a wide array of learners to meet a high standard.  Many European and Asian nations, for example, routinely prepare teachers more extensively, pay them more compared to other competing occupations, and provide them with time for joint planning and professional development.  In the last two decades, many countries moved teacher education to the graduate level, adding in-depth pedagogical study and an intensive internship in schools to a base of strong undergraduate preparation in the discipline (Darling, 2005).  Entrance into teacher education programs in these countries is also highly competitive, making well trained teachers more widely available.  By contrast, the United States spent the last two decades lowering requirements for teacher certification and many states face a teacher shortage.  Many alternative certification programs do not require participants to work in a classroom before certification.  As a result, the public believes anyone can teach.

According to Elmore (2005), the logic of NCLB seems to be: “If schools are threatened with closure and other sanctions, they will figure out how to improve themselves.  Schools that are unable to meet state standards are aware of their deficiencies; however, virtually no infrastructure exists to provide support to these failing schools.”  Elmore goes on to argue, “if we don’t provide school staffs with what is necessary to make these leaps, that is, the knowledge and tools they need to raise student achievement, we will not only assure that schools don’t improve substantially, we will increasingly sow cynicism and resistance toward the law.”             Additionally, NCLB requires a much greater amount of data collection and disaggregation than ever before.  Unfortunately, the demand for data evaluation created by NCLB did not lead state governments to train teachers in data disaggregation so they could effective use the data they have now.  Nelson and Eddy (2008) conducted a case study focusing on improving teachers’ skills in data-driven decision making.  They analyzed student work and the teachers’ own professional practice and found that once teachers understood how to examine student work and plan on the basis of that examination, they maximize their effectiveness as teachers.  Only after a collaborative teacher group masters these skills can they develop meaningful interventions to improve Annual Yearly Progress as required by NCLB. 

            In the United States very little time in the standard teaching year is dedicated to training teachers.  Teachers often seek training at night and on weekends: whenever they can work them around busy family schedules.  Yet this system does not effectively provide teachers the training they need to handle day-to-day problems in their classroom.  A study by Supovitz and Turner (2000) shows that teachers require at least eighty hours of professional development before they use inquiry-based teaching practices more frequently.  Additional blocks of professional development result in a more investigative classroom culture (Supovitz & Turner).  Johnson, Kalhe, and Fargo’s (2007) study confirms that the time teachers have for professional development directly impacts student achievement.         

Johnson, Kalhe, and Fargo (2007) established a system of whole-school, sustained professional development which provided opportunity for collaboration between teachers over time, within community.  The school that received the professional development time in the study did not experience any turn over in their science teaching staff in over six years.  This speaks to the power of professional development, collaboration, and camaraderie to retain teachers.  Considering the enormous cost of teacher attrition – an estimated $300 million to $2 billion per year in Texas alone – the value any type of professional development that significantly reduces the number of teachers is tremendous (Darling, 2006).  Mike Schmoker (2004) points out professional learning communities are arguably the best, most agreed-upon means by which to continuously improve instruction and student performance.  They succeed where typical staff development and workshops fail due to the ability of such groups to respond to current classroom issues.  More stunning yet is how rare such learning communities are in our schools and districts, although this concept is now embraced in virtually every other industry and profession.

Inattentive

            High levels of inattention drastically reduce a parent’s ability to monitor a child’s behavior or help them with homework.  Murray (2008) studied sixty women and their children between the ages of 8 and 14, using a series of self-reports and laboratory measures designed to measure maternal monitoring of child behavior and consistency in parenting.  She found that mother’s with ADHD monitored their children less, had fewer routines and were less able to report their child’s activities over the last 24 hours.  A lack of parental monitoring is linked to higher rates of injury in toddlers, poor academic performance in school, and higher rates of risky behaviors in adolescents.  Murray also found that mothers with ADHD were significantly more inconsistent in both discipline and laxness.  Inattentive parents also struggle to provide structure in their child’s life.  When a parent is inattentive, they easily forget they put a child in time-out or fail to notice if a child does not follow instructions. 

Impulsive

            High levels of hyperactivity or impulsivity drastically reduce a parent’s ability to listen to a child talk about their day, maintain daily routines or enforce household rules.   Because parents with ADHD have fewer daily routines, they have fewer opportunities to gather information from their children (Murray, 2008).  Treating a child’s ADHD with medication is difficult if the parent administering the daily medication is unable to follow a daily routine.  A study by Arnold, O’Leary and Edwards (1997) investigated the impacts of ADHD on the parenting style of fathers.  They found that fathers with high ADHD symptoms were more like to have over-reactive discipline styles. 

Impact on the Behavior of a Child

            A child, who is genetically inclined to having ADHD and is interacting with a parent with untreated ADHD, may be especially at risk to develop ADHD - genetically and through the family environment.  A major part of handling a child with ADHD involves setting limits, realizing when a child misbehaves, and remaining calm in disciplining the child (Banks, 1999). 

            Minde, Eakin, Hechtman, Ocha, Bouffard, Greenfield, and Looper (2003) studied the psychosocial functioning of 23 spouses and 63 children of 33 families with an ADHD parent compared with a control group of 26 families.  They used diagnostic interviews, intellectual testing, and self-report measure to evaluate the adults and diagnostic interview, teacher report forms, intelligence and achievement testing, and social functioning inventory to evaluate the children.  The study found that non-ADHD children who had one healthy parent and one ADHD parent exhibit less problematic behaviors than children raised without a non-ADHD parent.  

            Banks studied eighty-two mothers of children between the ages of 3 and 6.  He evaluated participants with a demographic questionnaire and eight standardized measures.  The study found mothers with high ADHD symptoms were more likely to report lower parenting self-esteem and less effective disciplinary styles, compared with mothers with low ADHD symptoms. 

            Evans, Vallano, and Pelham (1994) provide a case study in which a mother sought help because she could not control her 6-year-old, ADHD son.  An evaluation revealed that the mother had ADHD.  As it turns out, the mother’s own ADHD symptoms interfered with her implementation of strategies she learned at parent training classes.  Following stimulant medication treatment for her symptoms, the mother reported an improvement in her parenting behaviors and in her son’s behavior (although he had not received medication).  She also reported feeling more successful and competent in her parenting when taking the medication.  

            A child with ADHD has very little impact on the psychological health of the parents; however, a parent with ADHD can significantly impact the psychological health of their children.  Due to the genetic link of ADHD, evaluating the parents of a child with ADHD may be essential in treating the child. 

         The phrase, “Those who can, do, and those who can’t, teach.” reflects the long-held public view of education.  In the eyes of parents and other community members, teachers are glorified babysitters who get way too much time off.  Unfortunately, this perspective became a self-fulfilling prophecy as the educational system developed.  Like manufacturing industries modern schools were designed to help, schools developed as increasingly specialized organizations.   Because decisions are made at the top of the educational hierarchy, there is no rationale for substantial teacher preparation or salary.    Teachers receive less pay than equally educated professionals (Darling, 2001).  Consequently, there are shortages of qualified teachers across the country.  These shortages drove school districts to lower standards for new applicants – they had to fill the vacancies.  The lower standards attract people to the field who are trained to do little more than babysit. 

            Teachers have a tremendous influence in their students’ lives.  Teachers can make students feel like failures or successes.  Teachers influence whether a student gives up or has a drive to success that lasts a lifetime.  Sanders, William, and Rivers found that fifth grade students are still affected by the quality of their third grade teachers (as cited in Haycock).  Many researchers now hypothesize that the achievement gap in the United States is not due to inequalities in race, economics, or ability, but is in the inequalities found in skills of teachers (Darling, 2006; Haycock, 1998; Johnson, Kahle, & Fargo, 2007; Schmoker, 2006; Stigler & Heibert, 1999).  Haycock found a direct correlation between a teacher’s score on their certification exam and ACT and their students’ test scores.  This study also revealed that a teacher who majored in the content they teach routinely have higher student performance scores than teachers who do not.  As this research has shown, the only lasting way to improve student achievement is to focus attention on developing competent teachers.

Attachment Problems

            Marital satisfaction can be predicted by one’s perception of their attachment to their spouse.  Several studies have revealed that the capacity to form intimate bonds with others is a principal feature of effective personality development and a key marker of mental health (Collins, 2004).  Attachment theory is the product of a desire to explain the attachment between infants and their primary care giver.  However, Bowlby found the basic functions of the attachment system continue to operate in adulthood (as cited in Collins).  The type of attachment formed depends upon the sensitivity and responsiveness to the person’s needs and signals.    The study done by Paul Ward (2008) found that only 33% adults with ADHD have secure type attachments with their spouse whereas, 70% of the non-ADHD adults have secure attachments.  Ward’s study confirms the findings of Donna McCoy research from 2003.  However, McCoy’s study also found that although the attachment style was stable for the first 18 months of the relationship, it could become more stable if the ADHD individual was married to a person who had a secure attachment style.  This result may show that a secure partner can provide the structure and support that the ADHD person needs to function successfully.

            Several studies find that adults with ADHD experience significantly lower levels of marital satisfaction than control groups without ADHD (Banks, 1999; Ward, 2008).   Murphy and Barkley report that adults with ADHD not only reported lower levels of marital satisfaction; they also had higher rates of divorce and more re-marriages than controls (as cited in Murray, 2003).   

Intimacy Problems

            ADHD plays a big role in the ability of people with the disorder to enjoy sexual encounters.  Sexual intimacy is a key element of marriage relationships.    Hallowell and Ratey (2006) report that every ADHD adult they interviewed experienced sexual problems related to the disorder.  For most people, the first phase of sex causes the mind and body to relax.  For a person with ADHD “relaxing of the mind” allows their thoughts to roam from one topic to another.  The inattention that characterizes ADHD can communicate a lack of interest to the partner and hinder sexual performance.  The most common sexual problem related to a person with ADHD is the inability to linger (Hallowell & Ratey).  Another characteristic of ADHD that causes a lack of sexual intercourse is poor time management.  Many times an individual with ADHD will have every intention of having sexual intercourse with their partner, however throughout the day so many things crowd into their mind that by the time finish everything they are too exhausted to perform sexually (Hallowell & Ratey).  This causes their spouse to feel that they are not a priority in the ADHD person’s life.  While the person with ADHD considers their spouse an essential component of their life, they just do not have enough control of their thoughts to communicate this well.

Partnership Problems

            Since marriage is a partnership between two people who agree to share their lives, most people expect their partner to be interested in the things they do and help with household responsibilities.  The shifting attentions of a person with ADHD can cause confusion for their partner.  For example, someone who loves hiking during the dating phase of the relationship may have no interest in it by the first wedding anniversary.  The shifting interests combined with impulsivity makes it difficult for a person with ADHD to stay in the same job for a prolonged amount of time, so they do not bring as much income into a partnership.  Compound the lack of income with the impulsive spending habits that characterize the disorder and it becomes obvious these relationships suffer from financial stress.  Paul Ward (2008) finds that the person with ADHD and their spouse report more negative perceptions of their relationship than the control group. He also reports ADHD in families is associated with increased stress, fewer resources, and limited coping methods for the family.   

            Halverstadt (1998) found that forgetfulness is one ADHD trait attributed to undermining romantic relationships.  The problem is not that people with ADHD are unromantic.  Often, romantic relationships form because people with ADHD can hyper focus on the needs of their significant others.  Problems come when their attention focuses on something else and their partners feel deserted. The truth is, a person with ADHD rarely forgets things. In reality, they just remember them at the wrong time.  They often become completely absorbed planning great romantic surprise for birthdays, anniversaries, or other important dates, months in advance and cause their partner to feel neglected because the ADHD person does not share their thoughts during this time.  However, by the time the date arrives, the ADHD person’s attention shifts and they forget to carry out their plans. 

            While many might see this passive-aggressive behavior as non-compliance, research allows a deeper understanding of teachers’ behavior.  For years, teachers poured tremendous effort into implementing reforms.  Rothbaum, Weisz and Snyder (1982) say this is a teacher’s attempt to exert primary control of their environment.  In other words, teachers originally believed that if they worked hard enough, that they could make reforms work and help students excel.  When attempts at primary control do not work, however, this forces people to use secondary methods of control.  In this situation, the disappointed teacher does not fully implement reforms because they do not believe reforms work anyway.  So, when the reform does not work, the teacher feels in control of their environment because they ‘knew it wouldn’t work anyway’ (Rothbaum, et. al. , 1982).

            Carol Dweck identified two basic mindsets in her book, ‘Mindsets,’ published in 2003.  This book, a summary of twenty years of research, explores the difference between the fixed mindset and growth mindset.  A fixed mindset believes that your qualities are carved in stone, creating an urgency to prove yourself continually throughout life.  The growth mindset, on the other hand, believes that your basic qualities are things you cultivate though effort, leading people to strive for improvement even when they fail (Dweck).  Because state governments did not include teachers in the reform process, teachers felt out of control.  An extended history of failed reforms instilled a passive aggressive survival attitude in experience teachers and, over time, cultivated a fixed mindset. 

            In ‘The Teaching Gap,’ Stigler and Heibert (1999) indicate several areas where the fixed mindset of teachers in the United States negatively impacts student achievement.  Teachers in the United States who have fixed mindsets often misunderstand students’ confusion and frustration in the classroom and step in to correct a perceived problem with content mastery.  In Japan, where teachers have more of a growth mindset, they would allow students to work through confusions and frustration on their own, as a natural part of the learning process.  Additionally, the average classroom in Japan contains about forty students.  In the United States, the average classroom is about twenty-five students.  In Japan teachers do not complain about class size, believing each student learns something by struggling with the lesson.  In the United States, on the other hand, teachers constantly look for ways to reduce class size because their fixed mindset does not believe that a student’s effort is part of the learning process.  Consequently, teachers in the United States spend a lot of time tailoring lessons to the learning styles and needs of the students and have little actual student achievement to show for it.

            Marva Collins’ success with students from inner-city Chicago is an amazing example of the power of a growth mindset (Collins, n.d.).  When you look at her methods, and the methods of other great teachers, they all focus on helping students develop a growth mindset.  Once students accept that they alone control their ability to grow, they readily accept the challenge, work hard, and ultimately excel.

            Recognizing that teaching is a cultural activity explains why it has been so resistant to change.  But it also gives insight into what will be required to improve it.  In order to transform the culture of education, the mindset of the teachers must be changed.  Our culture does not usually recognize small changes as progress.  The reforms that have been implemented up to this point have focused on quick results, but have failed to change the system as a whole.  When evaluating reforms, we must ask ourselves, if the tortoise wins the race then, maybe we should stop trying to imitate the hare.